Handbook of Crystal Growth

Handbook of Crystal Growth

Volume IIIA Basic Techniques
Handbook of Crystal Growth, Second Edition Volume IIIA (Basic Techniques), edited by chemical and biological engineering expert Thomas F. Kuech, presents the underpinning science and technology associated with epitaxial growth as well as highlighting many of the chief and burgeoning areas for epitaxial growth. Volume IIIA focuses on major growth techniques which are used both in the scientific investigation of crystal growth processes and commercial development of advanced epitaxial structures. Techniques based on vacuum deposition, vapor phase epitaxy, and liquid and solid phase epitaxy are presented along with new techniques for the development of three-dimensional nano-and micro-structures.

Volume IIIB Materials, Processes, and Technology
Handbook of Crystal Growth, Second Edition Volume IIIB (Materials, Processes, and Technology), edited by chemical and biological engineering expert Thomas F. Kuech, describes both specific techniques for epitaxial growth as well as an array of materials-specific growth processes. The volume begins by presenting variations on epitaxial growth process where the kinetic processes are used to develop new types of materials at low temperatures. Optical and physical characterizations of epitaxial films are discussed for both in situ and exit to characterization of epitaxial materials. The remainder of the volume presents both the epitaxial growth processes associated with key technology materials as well as unique structures such as monolayer and two dimensional materials.

Key features

Volume IIIA Basic Techniques

Volume IIIB Materials, Processes, and Technology

Readership

Scientists and engineers from diverse (academic/industrial) backgrounds including crystal growers, physicists, chemists, engineers, bioengineers, solid state scientists, materials scientists, earth scientists, etc.

Table of contents

General Preface
Preface to Volume III
List of Contributors
Part A. Basic Techniques

1. Epitaxy for Energy Materials

1.2. The Epitaxial Methods

1.3. Epitaxial Processes for High-Efficiency III–V Solar Cells

1.4. Thin-Film Silicon Solar Cells

1.5. Germanium Layers on Glass

1.6. Epitaxial Processes for Thermo-Photovoltaic Devices

2. Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy for Current III–V and Nitride Semiconductor Compound Issues

2.2. Overview of the HVPE Process

2.3. Morphology-Controlled Growth at the Micrometer and Submicrometer Scales

2.4. HVPE Growth of NWs

3. The Science and Practice of Metal-Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE)

3.2. The Science of MOVPE—Fundamental Aspects

3.3. The Role of Impurities

3.4. Growth System Considerations

4. Principles of Molecular Beam Epitaxy

4.2. Description of MBE Equipment

4.3. MBE Growth Process

4.4. III-V Alloy Growth

4.5. Doping of III-V Materials

4.6. Growth of Highly Mismatched Alloys

5. Molecular Beam Epitaxy with Gaseous Sources

5.2. MBE Growth System

5.3. GSMBE Growth for III–V Semiconductors

5.4. MOMBE/CBE Growth for III–V Semiconductors

6. Liquid-Phase Epitaxy

6.2. Historical Perspective

6.3. Phase Equilibria Modeling

6.4. Doping and Impurity Control

6.5. Driving Forces for Crystal Growth in LPE

6.6. Substrate Surface Preparation for LPE

6.7. LPE Instrumentation, Control and In situ Analysis

6.8. Melt Convection

6.10. LPE Growth Mechanisms and Layers with Atomically Smooth Surfaces

6.11. Quantum Wells, Superlattice, and Nanostructures by LPE

6.12. Growth of Thick Ternary and Quaternary Alloy Layers for “Virtual” Substrates with Adjustable Lattice Parameters

6.13. Selective Epitaxy and Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth

6.14. LPE for Shaped Crystal Growth

6.15. Silicon and SiGe LPE and Solution Growth with Main Applications to Solar Cells

6.16. Silicon Carbide LPE

6.17. III-V Nitride LPE

6.18. Conclusion and Outlook

7. Solid-Phase Epitaxy

7.1. Introduction and Background

7.2. Experimental Methods

7.3. Solid-Phase Epitaxy in Si and Ge

7.4. Atomistic Models

7.5. Defects Formed during Solid-Phase Epitaxy

7.6. Diffusion and Segregation of Impurities during Solid-Phase Epitaxy

7.7. SPE in Other Semiconductors

8. Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD)

8.1. Typical Experimental PLD Setups

8.2. Physics and Chemistry of PLD

8.3. Application of PLD to Various Materials

8.4. Related Deposition Technologies

9. Vapor-Liquid-Solid Growth of Semiconductor Nanowires

9.2. VLS Growth of Si Nanowires

9.3. VLS Growth of III–V Nanowires

10. Selective Area Masked Growth (Nano to Micro)

10.2. Methodology of SAG

10.3. Applications of Selective Area Masked Growth

11. Organic van der Waals Epitaxy versus Templated Growth by Organic–Organic Heteroepitaxy

11.1. Organic van der Waals Epitaxy

11.2. Templated Growth by Organic–Organic Heteroepitaxy

12. Epitaxy of Small Organic Molecules

12.2. Structure of Organic Small-Molecule Interfaces

12.3. Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Organic Epitaxy

12.4. Methods of Epitaxial Growth of Organic Molecular Crystals

12.5. Characterization of Organic Molecular Heterostructures

13. Epitaxial Growth of Oxide Films and Nanostructures

13.2. Oxide Thin Film Growth

13.3. Lithography-Based Epitaxial Oxide Nanostructures

13.4. Template Synthesis and Deposition for Oxide Nanostructures

13.5. Three-Dimensional Deposition for Oxide Nanostructures

13.6. Self-assembled Nanocomposite Oxide Films

14. Epitaxy of Carbon-Based Materials: Diamond Thin Film

14.2. Homoepitaxy of Diamond

14.3. Heteroepitaxy of Diamond

14.4. Summary and Conclusions

15. Magnetic Semiconductors

15.2. III–V Magnetic Semiconductors

15.3. Other Magnetic Semiconductors and Related Materials

16. MOCVD of Nitrides

16.2. Understanding the Growth of Nitrides by MOCVD

17. Molecular Beam Epitaxy of Nitrides for Advanced Electronic Materials

17.2. Apparatus for Nitride MBE

17.3. PAMBE Growth of Advanced Electronic Nitride Materials

17.4. Ammonia-Assisted MBE Growth

18. Epitaxial Graphene

18.2. Preliminaries: Band Structure

18.3. Graphene Synthesis on SiC

18.4. Overview of Graphene Synthesis on SiC

18.5. Practical Information on Graphene Synthesis and Properties

18.6. Formation on Si-Face

18.7. Formation on C-Face

18.8. Other Graphene Synthesis Approaches on SiC

18.9. Outlook
Part B. Materials, Processes, and Technology

19. Chemical Vapor Deposition of Two-Dimensional Crystals

19.2. Chemical Vapor Deposition of Graphene

19.3. Chemical Vapor Deposition of Hexagonal Boron Nitride

19.4. Chemical Vapor Deposition of Molybdenum Disulfide

20. Kinetic Processes in Vapor Phase Epitaxy

20.1. Introduction to Thermodynamics and Kinetics

20.2. Intended Focus and Scope of Article

20.3. Atomistic Processes Involved in Thin-Film Growth

20.4. Closing Remarks

21. Metal Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy Chemical Kinetics

21.1. Introduction to MOVPE

21.2. Thermochemical Aspects of the MOVPE Growth Process

21.3. Chemical Kinetic Processes within the MOVPE System

21.4. Reaction Kinetics of Organometallic Compounds

21.5. Reaction Kinetics of Group 15 Compounds

21.6. Growth Reactions

22. Transport Phenomena in Vapor Phase Epitaxy Reactors

22.2. Basic Overview of Transport Phenomena during Vapor Phase Epitaxy

22.3. Overview of Production-Scale VPE Technologies and Reactors

22.4. Epitaxy of Silicon

22.5. Metal-Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy of III-V Materials

22.6. Metal-Organic Vapor Phase Epitaxy of III-Nitrides

22.7. Epitaxy of SiC

23. Nucleation and Surface Diffusion in Molecular Beam Epitaxy

23.2. Basic Understandings

23.3. Intersurface Diffusion

23.4. Fabrication and Control of Microstructures

24. Predicted Thermal- and Lattice-Mismatch Stresses

24.2. Thermal Stress in an Elongated Film–Substrate Strip

24.3. Lattice-Mismatch Stresses in a Circular Film-Substrate Assembly

25. Low-Temperature and Metamorphic Buffer Layers

25.2. Uniform Buffer Layers

25.3. Step-Graded Buffer Layers

25.4. Linearly-Graded Buffer Layers

25.5. Nonlinear Buffers

25.6. Superlattice Buffers

25.7. Low-Temperature Buffer Layers and Two-step Growth

26. Self-Assembly in Semiconductor Epitaxy: From Growth Mechanisms to Device Applications

26.2. Self-Assembled Quantum Dots

26.3. Material Systems

26.4. Structural Characterization of Self-Assembled Structures

26.5. Electronic States and Optical Properties of Quantum Dots

26.6. Devices, Applications, and New Physics

26.7. Summary and Outlook

27. Atomic Layer Deposition

27.1. Thin Films and the Need for Precise Growth Control

27.2. From Atomic Layer Epitaxy to Atomic Layer Deposition

27.3. Basics of ALD

27.4. Materials, Precursors, and Co-reactants

27.5. ALD Chemistries

27.6. ALD Reactors

27.7. ALD Virtues and Practicalities

28. Silicon Carbide Epitaxy

28.2. Crystal Structures of SiC

28.3. Fundamentals of SiC Epitaxy

28.4. Chemical Vapor Deposition

28.5. Doping Control

28.6. Extended Defects in 4H-SiC Epilayers

28.7. Point Defects (Deep Levels)

28.8. Fast Epitaxy

28.9. Homoepitaxy on Other Orientations

28.10. Other Techniques

29. In Situ Characterization of Epitaxy

29.2. Measurement Modalities

29.3. Future Techniques

30. X-Ray and Electron Diffraction for Epitaxial Structures

30.2. Diffraction Principles

30.3. Epitaxial Growth and Diffraction Characterization

31. Growth of III/Vs on Silicon: Nitrides, Phosphides, Arsenides and Antimonides

31.2. Challenges of III/Vs on Silicon Heteroepitaxy

31.3. Si Surface Preparation

31.4. Growth of Nearly Lattice-Matched III/Vs on Silicon

31.5. Growth of Highly Mismatched III/Vs on Silicon

32. Heteroepitaxial Growth of Si, Si1−xGex-, and Ge-Based Alloy

32.2. Crystal Growth

32.3. Strain, Dislocations, and Defects in Heteroepitaxial Layers